Again in 2003, the United Nations Convention on Commerce and Growth (UNCTD) hailed the emergence of a world marketplace for company headquarters (CHQs).[1] Multinational corporations (MNCs) had been changing into extra internationally cellular. They had been relocating their core enterprise capabilities, and generally the worldwide HQ itself, outdoors of their house nations to whichever nation supplied essentially the most aggressive perks. This development continues to persist. In 2016, a KPMG report discovered that 76% of the 1,300 CEOs surveyed world wide had been seeking to relocate their CHQs.[2] Even iconic American corporations have determined to maneuver, together with Burger King (to Canada), Budweiser (to Belgium), and Fortunate Strike (to the UK).
Nevertheless, American Massive Tech bucks the development. Alphabet, Amazon, Apple, Fb, and Microsoft are the world’s most useful MNCs by market capitalization.[3] Their providers mediate nearly each side of our lives, nearly wherever we’re: the instruments we use to work, research, and play; how we store and work together; the way in which corporations function and market their merchandise. Accordingly, they’ve established places of work and services internationally. Nonetheless, their CHQs have all the time remained in america (US).
Subsequently, this paper asks: why does Massive Tech keep headquartered within the US? For readability, I undertake Markus Menz’s definition of CHQ as “the multimarket agency’s central organizational unit, which is structurally separate from the product and geographic working models, and hosts company executives in addition to central workers capabilities that fulfil numerous worldwide and exterior roles”.[4] I discover that present explanations – corresponding to emotional attachments, small tax obligations, pleasant home laws, and placement bounded human sources – can not absolutely elucidate why Massive Tech stays headquartered at house. Another purpose is important.
I argue that Massive Tech stays headquartered at house to facilitate its intention of centring its company energy within the US. Crucially, this allows Massive Tech to affect the American authorities into advancing its pursuits domestically and internationally. Domestically, Massive Tech shapes authorities laws to reinforce its dominance within the American market – its most useful market. Internationally, Massive Tech depends upon America’s outsized affect to form worldwide commerce agreements and lengthen its market dominance worldwide.
I start by reviewing present explanations to elucidate the theoretical hole on the subject. Subsequent, I introduce the theoretical logic of my argument. I then elaborate on how staying headquartered within the US allows Massive Tech to amass company energy there, and why Massive Tech would wish to amass its company energy within the US. Lastly, I conclude by briefly discussing whether or not Massive Tech’s CHQs would keep within the US, given home stress for regulatory reforms not too long ago.
Literature evaluation
To inspire the paper’s contribution, I exhibit that present literature can not absolutely clarify why Massive Tech corporations proceed finding their CHQs within the US, at the same time as they’ve grown into world goliaths.
One common rationalization is that Massive Tech founders, main shareholders, and prime executives harbour a robust emotional attachment to America, and therefore favor their corporations to remain headquartered there.[5] In spite of everything, nearly all of them are People whose households and careers are rooted in America.
Whereas this rationalization appears believable at first look, there’s little proof that their emotional attachments do affect their enterprise choices to stay headquartered within the US. For this reason we nonetheless see iconic US manufacturers that had been based in America and led by People – i.e. Burger King and Seagate Applied sciences – selecting to relocate their CHQs abroad.
One other rationalization is that Massive Tech corporations can decrease their tax obligations by remaining headquartered within the US. Massive Tech corporations have turn out to be adept at exploiting the company tax loopholes within the US to reduce their liabilities.[6] Between 2018 and 2020, their efficient tax fee was solely 15.4%, which is considerably beneath the worldwide common of 25.85%.[7]
Nevertheless, tax charges don’t appear to be a key consideration for Massive Tech when selecting to stay headquartered within the US. In any other case, Massive Tech would have shifted their CHQs to a tax haven, such because the Cayman Islands, the place there isn’t a company tax.[8] Furthermore, Massive Tech has turn out to be savvy at avoiding taxes wherever they function, such that there isn’t a want to choose a CHQ location based mostly on decrease tax charges.
A 3rd rationalization is that the human capital of Massive Tech corporations is location bounded within the US, making it tough for them to relocate their CHQs abroad. Certainly, the English-speaking specialists main the enterprise operations of Massive Tech are principally People who’re based mostly within the US.[9] Regardless of the worldwide mobility of small cadres of bold professionals, most specialists can be unwilling emigrate abroad for work.[10] Massive Tech corporations would want to regularly substitute these specialists in the event that they had been to relocate their CHQs abroad. This creates robust lock-in results amongst them.
This idea has explanatory energy, however can not absolutely seize why Massive Tech stays headquartered at house. Whereas recruiting and retraining new specialists can be pricey for Massive Tech corporations, it isn’t an insurmountable job contemplating that they have already got well-established regional headquarters abroad. Crucially, different issues may take priority over human capital.[11] As an example, iconic British MNCs – corresponding to HSBC – relocated their headquarters abroad after Brexit.[12] This brings us to our final level.
The ultimate rationalization is that American home laws are pleasant to Massive Tech, making the US essentially the most supreme place to base its core actions and CHQs. Massive Tech corporations are most involved with three areas of regulation: antitrust, mental property (IP), and privateness. Crucially, they profit from America’s weak laws throughout all three areas. Antitrust legal guidelines haven’t constrained Massive Tech corporations, regardless of their market dominance over a broad vary of digital providers.[13] The weakening of IP legal guidelines impedes smaller corporations with disruptive applied sciences from coming into the market and limits their risk to the dominance of Massive Tech.[14] Weak privateness legal guidelines allow Massive Tech to gather and translate consumer information into behavioural information on the market with little transparency or safeguards.[15] Considerably, this allows Massive Tech to boost its dominance over the American market, which is of utmost significance as a result of it generates essentially the most income for Massive Tech.[16]
This rationalization is compelling however incomplete. For starters, Massive Tech is just not solely involved with the current state of laws, but in addition their capability to affect these laws to ensure their long-term pursuits. Moreover, Massive Tech’s agenda goes past sustaining pleasant home laws, to creating a world regulatory atmosphere that protects their pursuits. These two themes usually are not captured within the rationalization.
Subsequently, there seems to be a theoretical hole in explaining why Massive Tech stays headquartered within the US. The following part outlines a brand new idea to handle the hole.
Theoretical framework
I argue that staying headquartered within the US facilitates Massive Tech’s strategic endeavour to amass its company energy there. This idea might be damaged down into two propositions, as depicted in Determine 1. First, Massive Tech’s choice to stay headquartered within the US facilitates its endeavour to amass its company energy there. Second, Massive Tech advantages most from amassing its company energy within the US than wherever else on this planet.
I outline “company energy” because the political energy possessed by an organization – that’s, its capability to affect the actions, beliefs, or behaviours of others. The “three faces of energy” framework created by Doris Fuchs and Markus Lederer, and developed upon by John Mikler, is beneficial for unpacking the complexity of company energy. In line with them, company energy is a perform of an organization’s instrumental, structural, and discursive energy.[17]
Instrumental energy refers to Massive Tech’s capability to immediately affect the actions, insurance policies, or choices of presidency officers to favour its pursuits.[18] Massive Tech primarily develops its instrumental energy by lobbying officers in any respect three ranges of presidency (nationwide, state, and native) and all three branches of presidency (legislature, government, and judiciary). It sometimes entails private conferences with authorities officers, and common participation within the official hearings and particular committee periods organised by public businesses.[19]
In distinction, structural energy refers to Massive Tech’s capability to create or reinforce institutional practices that restrict the scope of public consideration to these points that are innocent to them.[20] Massive Tech amasses structural energy because it positive aspects market dominance over a variety of digital providers. It now kinds the infrastructural core of an ever-expanding tech universe, working as compulsory digital interfaces for all types of social trade – how we work, research, and play; how we store and work together; how corporations function and market their merchandise.
Thirdly, discursive energy refers to Massive Tech’s capability to affect politics and political processes via the shaping of norms and concepts.[21] Massive Tech accumulates discursive energy via its propaganda marketing campaign. It makes use of ads to vary public perceptions of tech laws. As an example, Fb sponsored articles and ads advocating for “up to date web laws” on socio-political web sites, whose readership contains authorities officers and public curiosity teams.[22] Massive Tech additionally funds assume tanks and lecturers who could analysis, advocate, and publish in its favour, with out essentially disclosing their benefactors.[23] Importantly too, the general public appearances of Massive Tech executives are rigorously scripted to propagate a pleasant model picture.[24]
Nevertheless, the “three faces of energy” framework at present overlooks an essential attribute of company energy: Company energy – and its constituent powers – is inherently location bounded. Massive Tech may foster its company energy within the US, however it will possible not translate into extra company energy within the EU or some other nation. Considerably, this creates an issue of shortage for Massive Tech. Massive Tech requires great sources to foster its company energy in anybody nation, however has restricted sources. It should, subsequently, unfold its sources based on the strategic significance of every nation. The extra essential a rustic is to Massive Tech’s income, the extra sources it’s going to put into fostering company energy there.
Contemplate now that CHQs are the place corporations’ key sources are centralized. As such, the placement of a company’s headquarters maximises its capability to build up company energy in that exact nation. That is my idea’s first proposition. I’ll elaborate upon this proposition within the subsequent part, as I element how staying headquartered within the US facilitates Massive Tech’s accumulation of company energy there.
However this begs the query: Why would Massive Tech wish to amass its company energy within the US? This brings us to my idea’s second proposition. My idea suggests two the explanation why Massive Tech needs to amass its company energy within the US. First, it allows Massive Tech to protect pleasant home laws within the American market from which it derives essentially the most income. Second, it permits Massive Tech to leverage America’s outsized affect in worldwide politics to form worldwide digital agreements and facilitate its world enlargement. These causes can be elaborated upon within the later part of the paper.
Staying headquartered within the US
This part presents three key items of proof to exhibit that Massive Tech’s choice to stay headquartered within the US is pushed by its endeavour to centralize its energy within the US.
Firstly, staying headquartered within the US facilitates Massive Tech’s lobbying efforts, that are primarily focused at American authorities officers. In Determine 2, I examine the whole quantity that Massive Tech spent on lobbying policymakers within the US and European Union (EU) from 2013 to 2020.[25] I selected the US and EU as a result of these are the place Massive Tech spends essentially the most on lobbying. We observe that Massive Tech spends at the very least 2.5 instances extra lobbying within the US than EU yearly all through the 8 years. This means that Massive Tech prioritizes fostering its instrumental energy within the US than wherever else. Crucially, finding its CHQ within the US allows Massive Tech corporations to higher coordinate their lobbying efforts there. Their CHQ every homes a World Authorities Affairs and Public Coverage crew. Staying within the US allows the crew to handle a bigger pool of lobbyists regionally to maintain extra intensive lobbying efforts on the grassroots, state, and federal ranges.[26] As we will study later, that is essential to sustaining pleasant home laws and entrenching their dominance within the American market, from which they derive essentially the most income. The proximity can be essential to sustaining an in depth collaboration with American authorities officers on shaping worldwide digital agreements.
Secondly, staying headquartered within the US enhances Massive Tech’s “Americanness” amongst Americans and authorities officers. Massive Tech corporations have been strategically portraying themselves as People versus some other nationalities. They declare to characterize American values of “democracy, competitors, inclusion, and free expression” on the world stage, towards the menacing rise of Chinese language tech which is “extremely censored, state-controlled, and a platform for surveillance”.[27] Additionally they declare to be supporting the American economic system and its workforce (greater than wherever else) via their investments in home suppliers and producers.[28] Remaining headquartered within the US reinforces its publicized dedication in direction of being American and contributing to American society, thereby boosting public notion of its “Americanness”. Considerably, this imbues Massive Tech with the discursive energy to assert that its enterprise practices are aligned with America’s public pursuits, and therefore legitimatize its dominance among the many American public and authorities officers.
Thirdly, Massive Tech stays headquartered within the US to strengthen its enterprise ties with the American authorities and domesticate a structural dependency on it. Massive Tech’s proximity to politicians and bureaucrats throughout all ranges of presidency allows it to entry extra alternatives for closed tenders, achieve insights on tender necessities behind closed doorways, and galvanise assist for its bid. Furthermore, staying headquartered within the US strengths its “Americanness”, which allows it to entry authorities tenders that contain essential public providers, corresponding to army defence, inner safety, and public healthcare. As such, between 2010 and 2018, Massive Tech corporations have collectively secured greater than 5,000 contracts with federal businesses.[29] They’ve been instrumental to the modernization of the US army below the Division of Defence (DoD).[30] Moreover, their applied sciences help the Immigration and Customs Enforcement’s (ICE) arrests, detentions, and deportations of immigrants.[31] Importantly too, Massive Tech corporations have been the first supply of consumer information for the Nationwide Safety Company’s (NSA) home and worldwide surveillance programmes.[32]
Considerably, this augments Massive Tech’s structural energy over the American authorities. Massive Tech asserts that its “market dimension” permits it to maintain its investments into creating the community infrastructure that public businesses and odd People rely on.[33] Stringent laws to weaken their market dimension would solely impede improvements and hurt American pursuits. Subsequently, even because the American authorities recognises the specter of Massive Tech’s dominance to customers and democracy, it stays cautious of regulating them.
Centring company energy within the US
To date, I’ve demonstrated that Massive Tech stays headquartered within the US to facilitate its intention of centring its company energy there. This part will elaborate on why Massive Tech needs to amass its company energy within the US within the first place.
Preserving pleasant home laws within the American market
One purpose is that Massive Tech corporations prioritize sustaining their dominance within the American market, as a result of it’s the most useful market to them. The American market is Massive Tech’s greatest income.[34] American customers have essentially the most disposable revenue to buy Massive Tech’s services. American companies make investments closely in e-commerce, promoting, and different digital providers supplied by Massive Tech to achieve native and worldwide customers from the US. The American authorities additionally provides giant public initiatives to Massive Tech. Consequently, Massive Tech is most anxious about sustaining its dominance within the American market, which compels them to remain headquartered within the US. I’ll draw upon the instance of US privateness legal guidelines as an example my case.
Staying headquartered within the US has facilitated Massive Tech’s lobbying efforts to take care of lax privateness legal guidelines regionally. The US helps self-regulation and lacks a complete framework on private information such because the one offered by the EU’s Common Information Safety Regulation (GDPR). Consequently, American customers’ privateness rights are poorly protected, permitting Massive Tech corporations to take advantage of their private information for industrial use.[35]
Leveraging its proximity to US policymakers on the federal and state degree, Massive Tech has been actively lobbying them to withstand public demand for extra stringent privateness legal guidelines. At Capitol Hill, Massive Tech has immediately lobbied 4 committees in Congress with jurisdiction over privateness laws: the Home Judiciary Committee, the Home Vitality and Commerce Committee, the Senate Committee on the Judiciary, and the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. 94% of the members of those have acquired a monetary contribution from Massive Tech in 2020. Democrats and Republicans alike benefitted from these funds, which totalled greater than $3 million.[36] Consequently, Congress has didn’t reform its privateness laws or strengthen the enforcement of its present privateness laws.
Massive Tech’s efforts additionally lengthen to state policymakers. It has been seeding water-down “privateness” laws in states to pre-empt larger safety. To date, it has lobbied policymakers in additional than 20 states, 14 of which has adopted state privateness payments endorsed by Massive Tech however deemed too weak for customers by privateness advocates.[37]
General, this instance demonstrates how staying headquartered within the US strengthens Massive Tech’s instrumental energy in preserving pleasant laws within the American market, which is by far its most useful client market.
Leveraging America’s outsized affect in worldwide politics
The second purpose why Massive Tech centralises its company energy within the US is to leverage America’s outsized affect in worldwide digital commerce to advance its agenda. Because the UNCTAD notes, the worldwide digital commerce agenda “displays the pursuits of the foremost digital house owners and their famous person corporations, that are reaping first-move benefits”.[38] Once more, this motivates Massive Tech to remain headquartered within the US. I illustrate this case via the current worldwide repeal of digital-service taxes.
Massive Tech efficiently collaborated with the US authorities to fend off proposals by European nations, UK, India, Indonesia, and Brazil to levy digital-service taxes on giant tech corporations. On the OECD and G20 conferences in July 2021, the US warned that it deemed such digital-service taxes as discriminatory towards American tech corporations. As an alternative, the US spearheaded an settlement to create a worldwide minimal 15% company tax fee and scrape digital-service taxes.[39] Whereas Massive Tech corporations will nonetheless need to pay extra taxes abroad below the worldwide tax settlement, the worldwide adoption of digital-service taxes would have value them extra.
Considerably, Massive Tech’s proximity to US policymakers enabled them to form their agenda at these talks. By means of its community of connections throughout the federal authorities (solid via federal contracts, lobbying, and its public picture), Massive Tech persuaded US officers that the digital-service taxes threatened their competitiveness abroad and subsequently not directly harms the American economic system. It maintained direct contact with US officers via common conferences in Capitol Hill. Crucially, it supplied ideas on how the US can intervene to guard them, and helped to galvanise assist amongst worldwide policymakers on the behalf of US policymakers.[40]
This instance displays how Massive Tech leveraged its structural and discursive energy to influence the US authorities into defending its pursuits (and therefore market dominance) internationally. These powers had been, partly, enhanced by Massive Tech’s proximity to the US policymakers.
Conclusion
Regardless of home stress to control them lately, Massive Tech will possible stay headquartered within the US. As mentioned, Massive Tech enjoys great advantages from centring its company energy within the US than wherever else. One purpose is that it allows Massive Tech to protect pleasant home laws within the American market, from which it derives essentially the most income. Another excuse is that it permits Massive Tech to leverage America’s outsized affect to form worldwide digital agreements. In flip, this motivates Massive Tech to remain headquartered within the US, as a result of it facilitates their amassing of company energy there. General, this paper is an try at creating a brand new idea to clarify why Massive Tech stays headquartered within the US, however extra empirical testing is important. Particularly, a small-N comparative case research between Massive Tech and different American corporations which have relocated their CHQs may yield extra insights.
Notes
[1] “World Marketplace for Company HQs Rising,” United Nations Convention on Commerce and Growth (UNCTD), accessed October 20, 2021, https://unctad.org/press-material/world-market-corporate-hqs-emerging.
[2] Carmen Raluca Stoian, “Why Massive Companies Transfer Their Headquarters Across the World,” The Dialog, accessed October 20, 2021, https://theconversation.com/why-big-businesses-move-their-headquarters-around-the-world-tax-talent-and-trepidation-110913.
[3] “Largest tech Corporations by Market Cap,” Corporations Market Cap, accessed October 20, 2021, https://companiesmarketcap.com/tech/largest-tech-companies-by-market-cap/.
[4] Markus Menz, Sven Kunisch and David J. Collis, “The Company Headquarters within the Up to date Company: Advancing a Multimarket Agency Perspective,” Academy of Administration Annals 9, no. 1 (Jan 2015): 633-714, https://doi.org/10.5465/19416520.2015.1027050.
[5] Klaus E. Meyer and Gabriel R.G. Benito, “The place Do MNEs Find Their Headquarters? At House!” World Technique Journal 6, No.2 (Could 2016): 149-159, https://doi-org.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/10.1002/gsj.1115.
[6] Tomoshizu Kawase, Maki Sagami and Tokio Murakami, “Massive Tech Tax Burdens Are Simply 60% of World Common,” Nikkei Asia, accessed October 20, 2021, https://asia.nikkei.com/Highlight/Datawatch/Massive-Tech-tax-burdens-are-just-60-of-global-average.
[7] Ibid.
[8] Tax Justice Community, “Company Tax Haven Index – 2021 Outcomes”, accessed October 20, 2021, https://cthi.taxjustice.web/en/cthi/cthi-2021-results.
[9] Kate Rooney and Yasmin Khorram, “Tech Corporations Say They Worth Range, However Reviews Present Little Change in Final Six Years,” CNBC, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.cnbc.com/2020/06/12/six-years-into-diversity-reports-big-tech-has-made-little-progress.html.
[10] Patrick Adler and Richard Florida, “Geography as Technique: The Altering Geography Of Company Headquarters In Put up-Industrial Capitalism,” Regional Research 54, no.5 (August 2019): 610-620. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2019.1634803.
[11] Patrick Adler and Richard Florida, “Geography as Technique,” 615.
[12] Toby Helm, “UK Companies Plan to Shift Throughout Channel After Brexit Chaos,” The Guardian, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2021/jan/30/uk-firms-plan-to-shift-across-channel-after-brexit-chaos.
[13] Sheelah Kolhatkar, “What’s Subsequent for the Marketing campaign to Break Up Massive Tech,” The New Yorker, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.newyorker.com/enterprise/foreign money/whats-next-for-the-campaign-to-break-up-big-tech
[14] Jonathan M. Barnett, “Why Massive Tech Likes Weak IP,” CATO Establishment, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.cato.org/regulation/spring-2021/why-big-tech-likes-weak-ip.
[15] Asuncion Esteve, “The Enterprise of Private Information: Google, Fb, and Privateness Points within the EU and the USA,” Worldwide Information Privateness Legislation 7, no.1 (February 2017): 36-47.
[16] Omri Wallach, “How Massive Tech Makes Their Billions,” Visible Capitalist, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.visualcapitalist.com/how-big-tech-makes-their-billions-2020/.
[17] Mikler, The Political Energy of World Companies (Cambridge: Polity, 2018), 33.
[18] Ibid, 35.
[19] Anthony J. Nownes, Whole Lobbying: What Lobbyists Need (And How They Attempt to Get It) (Cambridge: Cambridge College Press, 2012), 12-36.
[20] Mikler, World Companies, 40.
[21] Ibid, 45.
[22] Jane Chung, “Massive Tech, Massive Money: Washington’s New Energy Gamers,” Public Citizen, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.citizen.org/article/big-tech-lobbying-update/.
[23] Ibid.
[24] Malminderjit Singh, “Commentary: Massive Tech is Exhibiting Some Love To the US Authorities – Which Comes As No Shock,” Channel Information Asia, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.channelnewsasia.com/commentary/tech-advocacy-lobbying-government-relations-policy-845761.
[25] OpenSecrets, Lobbying Information, (October 20, 2021), https://www.opensecrets.org; LobbyFacts, Lobbying Information, (October 20, 2021), https://lobbyfacts.eu.
[26] Nownes, Whole Lobbying, 12-36.
[27] Anna Thompson, “Understanding Why Some Say China’s Web Mannequin Ought to Be Stopped,” Cincinnati Public Radio, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.wvxu.org/local-news/2020-11-02/understanding-why-some-say-chinas-internet-model-should-be-stoppped.
[28] Apple, “Apple Accelerates US Funding and Job Creation,” Apple Newsroom, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.apple.com/sg/newsroom/2018/01/apple-accelerates-us-investment-and-job-creation/.
[29] Jack Poulson, “Reviews of a Silicon Valley/Navy Divide Have Been Drastically Exaggerated,” Tech Inquiry, accessed October 20, 2021, https://techinquiry.org/SiliconValley-Navy.
[30] Todd Harrison, “Battle Networks and the Future Power,” Heart for Strategic and Worldwide Research, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.csis.org/evaluation/battle-networks-and-future-force.
[31] Mijente, Immigrant Protection Challenge and the Nationwide Immigration Challenge of the Nationwide Attorneys Guild, “Who’s Behind ICE?”, Mijente, accessed October 20, 2021, https://mijente.web/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/WHO’S-BEHIND-ICE_-The-Tech-and-Information-Corporations-Fueling-Deportations-_v1.pdf.
[32] Barton Gellman and Ashkan Soltani, “NSA Infiltrates Hyperlinks to Yahoo, Google Information Facilities Worldwide, Snowden Paperwork Say,” The Washington Put up, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/nsa-infiltrates-links-to-yahoo-google-data-centers-worldwide-snowden-documents-say/2013/10/30/e51d661e-4166-11e3-8b74-d89d714ca4dd_story.html.
[33] Foo Yun Chee, “Apple Denies Dominant Place Amid Antitrust Investigation,” Reuters, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.reseller.co.nz/article/681002/apple-denies-dominant-position-amid-antitrust-investigation/.
[34] Omri Wallach, “How Massive Tech Makes Their Billions,” Visible Capitalist, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.visualcapitalist.com/how-big-tech-makes-their-billions-2020/.
[35] Esteve, “The Enterprise of Private Information,” 40.
[36] Chung, “Massive Tech, Massive Money.”
[37] Todd Feathers, “Massive Tech Is Pushing States to Go Privateness Legal guidelines, and Sure, You Ought to Be Suspicious,” The Markup, accessed October 20, 2021, https://themarkup.org/privateness/2021/04/15/big-tech-is-pushing-states-to-pass-privacy-laws-and-yes-you-should-be-suspicious.
[38] United Nations Convention on Commerce and Growth (UNCTAD), “What’s At Stake for Growing Nations in Commerce Negotiations on E-commerce,” UNCTAD, https://unctad.org/system/recordsdata/official-document/ditctncd2020d5_en.pdf.
[39] Leigh Thomas, “130 Nations Again World Minimal Company Tax of 15%,” World Financial Discussion board, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/07/oecd-global-minimum-corporate-tax.
[40] Mark Scott and Emily Birnbaum, “How Washington and Massive Tech received the World Tax Battle,” Politico, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.politico.eu/article/washington-big-tech-tax-talks-oecd/.
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Additional Studying on E-Worldwide Relations